The Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), which was founded by Liu Bang (256–195 BCE), or Han Gaozu, marks an era of consolidated imperial institutions in Chinese history. After the short-lived Qin regime (221–206 BCE), the Han ruled China for four centuries, governing one of the most successful empires of the time. Conventionally, the dynasty is divided into two periods separated by a short interregnum. The Former, or Western, Han (206 BCE–8 CE) had its capital in Changan; the Latter, or Eastern, Han (25–220) had its capital in the east at Luoyang.
Political Changes
As soon as he established the Han, Gaozu, the first commoner to found a dynasty in imperial China, abolished the brutal laws and heavy taxes of the Qin. With regard to governmental institutions, however, he basically copied the preceding dynasty's system. The imperial throne, whose succession was hereditary, was assisted by a civil bureaucracy. Officials at various administrative levels were recruited through recommendation and examination and appointed by the imperial court. The empire was organized into commanderies (jun) and kingdoms (wangguo); the former, subdivided into districts (xian), were centrally controlled, while the latter were largely autonomous under enfeoffed kings. Commandery and district officials were responsible for the census of the population and the register of the land, which constituted the basis of the main forms of taxation (the poll tax and the land tax) and military conscription. To relieve the threat from the powerful nomadic peoples of Central Asia known as the Xiongnu (called Huns later in Europe), Gaozu adopted a conciliatory policy, which was continued by his immediate successors. They wooed the Xiongnu leaders by sending valuable gifts and imperial princesses as brides.
Subsequent emperors followed the early Han policy of light labor service and taxation. Due in part to peace and frugal government, the economy expanded, and production soared; as a result, the state treasury was full, and granaries bulged. Meanwhile, the court took steps to isolate the kingdoms and reduce the size of their territories. After 154 BCE, when the imperial court defeated a revolt staged by seven kingdoms, the authority of the central government was further consolidated by splitting the kingdoms' territories and curtailing their powers.
Emperor Wudi (156–87 BCE) oversaw an expansionist era in Han history. Domestically, he sought to expand central power by imposing state monopolies for salt and iron, proclaiming Confucianism the state ideology, and establishing a Confucian imperial university to train officials. In foreign affairs, besides military campaigns, the Han court relied on diplomatic efforts to establish favorable relations with other peoples. As a result, the Han armies advanced to the southwest.....
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